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Are Protists More Similar To Plants And Animals

Written By Sunday, July 3, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor fungi

Protist

Temporal range:

Paleoproterozoic[a] – Present

Pha.

Proterozoic

Archean

Had'n

Protist collage 2.jpg
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Groups included

Supergroups[1] and typical phyla

  • Archaeplastida (in part)
    • Rhodophyta (red algae)
    • Glaucophyta
  • SAR
    • Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...)
    • Alveolata
      • Apicomplexa
      • Ciliophora
      • Dinoflagellata
    • Rhizaria
      • Cercozoa
      • Foraminifera
      • Radiolaria
  • Excavata
    • Euglenozoa
    • Percolozoa
    • Metamonada
  • Amoebozoa
  • Hacrobia
  • Hemimastigophora
  • Apusozoa
  • Opisthokonta (in part)
    • Choanozoa

Many others;
classification varies

Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa
  • Animalia
  • Fungi
  • Plantae

A protist () is whatsoever eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells incorporate a jail cell nucleus) that is not an animal, found, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the terminal eukaryotic common ancestor),[ii] the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists practice not grade a natural group, or clade.[a] Therefore, some protists may be more closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists; however, like the groups algae, invertebrates, and protozoans, the biological category protist is used for convenience. Others classify any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism as a protist.[3] The report of protists is termed protistology.[4]

History [edit]

The classification of a third kingdom separate from animals and plants was kickoff proposed by John Hogg in 1860 as the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel as well proposed a third kingdom Protista as "the kingdom of primitive forms".[5] Originally these also included prokaryotes, simply with fourth dimension[ when? ] these were removed to a quaternary kingdom Monera.[b]

In the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues", and the fifth kingdom Fungi was established.[half-dozen] [7] [c] In the 5-kingdom system of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more than inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, red algae, and slime molds.[ten] Some use the term protist interchangeably with Margulis'due south protoctist, to encompass both single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that grade specialized tissues but practise not fit into whatever of the other traditional kingdoms.[xi]

Description [edit]

Likewise their relatively elementary levels of organization, protists do not necessarily take much in mutual.[12] When used, the term "protists" is now considered to mean a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-actualization but diverse taxa (biological groups); these taxa exercise non have an exclusive common ancestor beyond being composed of eukaryotes, and take different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.[13] [14]

Examples of protists include:[15]

  • Amoebas (including nucleariids and Foraminifera);
  • choanaflagellates; ciliates;
  • Diatoms;
  • Dinoflagellates;
  • Giardia;
  • Plasmodium (which causes malaria);
  • Oomycetes (including Phytophthora, the cause of the Great Famine of Ireland); and
  • slime molds.

These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes can join to form filaments, and slime molds can aggregate into a tissue-like mass.

In cladistic systems (classifications based on mutual beginnings), there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, as both terms refer to a paraphyletic group that spans the entire eukaryotic co-operative of the tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are generally distributed among various supergroups: examples include the

  • SAR supergroup (of stramenopiles or heterokonts, alveolates, and Rhizaria);
  • Archaeplastida (or Plantae sensu lato);
  • Excavata (which is generally unicellular flagellates); and
  • Opisthokonta (which commonly includes unicellular flagellates, only also animals and fungi).

"Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to be used informally as a catch-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are not within other traditional kingdoms. For instance, the give-and-take "protist pathogen" may exist used to announce whatever disease-causing organism that is not constitute, brute, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral.[16]

Subdivisions [edit]

The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "college" kingdoms such as:[5]

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular "beast-similar" (heterotrophic, and sometimes parasitic) organisms that are further sub-divided based on characteristics such as motility, such as the (flagellated) Flagellata, the (ciliated) Ciliophora, the (phagocytic) amoeba, and the (spore-forming) Sporozoa.
Protophyta
Protophyta are "plant-like" (autotrophic) organisms that are composed by and large of unicellular algae. The dinoflagellates, diatoms and Euglena-similar flagellates are photosynthetic protists.
Mold
Molds mostly refer to fungi; but slime molds and water molds are "fungus-like" (saprophytic) protists, although some are pathogens. Two separate types of slime molds exist, the cellular and acellular forms.

Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.g., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these accept been published nether either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[17] [eighteen] Conflicts, such equally these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an instance of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.

These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, accept been replaced past classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness among organisms). Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this grouping into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For instance, the water molds are now considered to exist closely related to photosynthetic organisms such equally Dark-brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes merely a subset of the "Amoeba" grouping, and significant number of former "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.

Even so, the older terms are even so used as informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that practise not class filaments.

Nomenclature [edit]

Historical classifications [edit]

Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were nearly ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (eastward.m., Vorticella, Anarchy, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus)[19] [20] were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. One thousand. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin.[21] The first groups used to allocate microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria.[22] In 1818, the German naturalist Georg Baronial Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to organisms such equally ciliates and corals.[23] [5] After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this grouping was modified in 1848 past Carl von Siebold to include only fauna-similar unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae.[24] The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[25] [v] The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined as a "kingdom of primitive forms".[26] [27]

In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg'southward label, arguing that Haeckel'due south term Protista included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally pregnant "outset established beings") did not. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such equally diatoms, green algae and fungi.[28] This classification was the footing for Whittaker'southward later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life.[viii] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the separate kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms.[6] These five kingdoms remained the accepted classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[29]

Modernistic classifications [edit]

Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes

Systematists today exercise not treat Protista as a formal taxon, just the term "protist" is still commonly used for convenience in two ways.[30] The well-nigh popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic one, that identifies a paraphyletic grouping:[31] a protist is any eukaryote that is not an fauna, (state) found, or (truthful) fungus; this definition[32] excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and also a non-unicellular group included in Protista in the by, the Myxozoa (animal).[33] Some systematists[ who? ] judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and use Protista in this sense as a formal taxon (every bit constitute in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).[ citation needed ]

The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[30] that either exist equally independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues (but vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such as cysts);[34] this definition excludes many brown, multicellular ruby and green algae, which may accept tissues.

The taxonomy of protists is still changing. Newer classifications endeavour to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (especially ultrastructural),[35] [36] [37] biochemical (chemotaxonomy)[38] [39] and DNA sequence (molecular research) data.[40] [41] Yet, there are sometimes discordances between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorized as 2 types: (i) ane morphology, multiple lineages (e.m. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (ii) 1 lineage, multiple morphologies (due east.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-bike stages).[42]

Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, new systems often divide or carelessness the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as carve up lines of eukaryotes. The recent scheme by Adl et al. (2005)[34] does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, form, etc.) and instead treats groups as clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to make the nomenclature more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated as phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper right.[43] Many are thought to be monophyletic, though at that place is notwithstanding uncertainty. For example, the Excavata are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably just monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[44]

In 2015 a Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms was arrived at past consensus with many authors including Cavalier-Smith. This classification proposes two superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include two kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include five kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains fourteen taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to as protists.[45]

Metabolism [edit]

Diet can vary co-ordinate to the type of protist. Near eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups.[ vague ] Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that practice not have / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria take entered into endosymbiontic relationship with other leaner/algae to supersede the missing functionality. For example, Paramecium bursaria and Paulinella accept captured a dark-green alga (Zoochlorella) and a cyanobacterium respectively that human action equally replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic leaner every bit mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-like leaner (Treponema spirochetes) for locomotion.

Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding tin accept identify where flagellates find prey. Other protists can engulf bacteria and other nutrient particles, by extending their cell membrane effectually them to form a food vacuole and digesting them internally in a procedure termed phagocytosis.

Nutritional types in protist metabolism
Nutritional type Source of energy Source of carbon Examples
 Photoautotrophs  Sunlight  Organic compounds or carbon fixation  Near algae
 Chemoheterotrophs  Organic compounds  Organic compounds  Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae

For almost important cellular structures and functions of animal and plants, it can be constitute a heritage amongst protists.[46]

Reproduction [edit]

Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually by binary fission.

Some species, for example Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[47] However, information technology is unclear how ofttimes sexual reproduction causes genetic substitution between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and virtually populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely substitution genes with other members of their species.[48]

Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.v billion years ago.[49] The primeval eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could exist a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A main reason for this view was that sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. Notwithstanding, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the common abdominal parasite Giardia lamblia was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex activity. However, G. lamblia was recently found to have a core set up of genes that role in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes.[50] These results suggested that Thou. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, straight evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex, was also found in Thousand. lamblia.[51]

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania accept been shown to exist capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[52]

Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik et al.[53] tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they institute 27 to be present, including 8 of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings suggest that T. vaginalis may exist capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were also present in G. lamblia, it appears that nearly of these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and M. lamblia. These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent amid eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[53] to propose that these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the mutual ancestor of all eukaryotes.[54]

This view was further supported past a written report of amoebae by Lahr et al.[55] Amoeba take generally been regarded equally asexual protists. However, these authors describe bear witness that most amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the majority of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. Early on researchers (e.1000., Calkins) accept interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules free in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms equally sexual reproduction.[56]

Protists more often than not reproduce asexually nether favorable environmental weather condition, but tend to reproduce sexually nether stressful weather condition, such equally starvation or heat shock.[57] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA impairment, also appears to exist an important factor in the induction of sex in protists.[57]

Some unremarkably constitute protist pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide diverseness of animals – which act every bit secondary or intermediate host – but tin can undergo sexual reproduction only in the primary or definitive host (for example: felids such as domestic cats in this case).[58] [59] [threescore]

Ecology [edit]

Biomass by life form.jpg

Free-living protists occupy near any surroundings that contains liquid water. Many protists, such equally algae, are photosynthetic and are vital chief producers in ecosystems, especially in the ocean as part of the plankton. Protists make upwardly a big portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments.[61]

Other protists include pathogenic species, such as the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium, which cause malaria.

Parasitism: role as pathogens [edit]

Some protists are pregnant parasites of animals (east.g.; v species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium crusade malaria in humans and many others cause like diseases in other vertebrates), plants[62] [63] (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes late blight in potatoes)[64] or even of other protists.[65] [66] Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely hard – a drug that harms a protist parasite is likewise likely to harm its animal/found host. A more thorough understanding of protist biological science may permit these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For instance, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast merely essential to conduct out important functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases caused by dangerous pathogens such as plasmodium.

Recent papers have proposed the apply of viruses to care for infections caused by protozoa.[67] [68]

Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists every bit pathogens to control reddish imported fire emmet (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentine republic. Spore-producing protists such every bit Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now)[69] tin reduce red fire ant populations past 53–100%.[70] Researchers accept also been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that tin can spread the pathogenic protist between red fire ant colonies.[71]

Fossil tape [edit]

Many protists take neither difficult parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans,[72] most ciliates,[73] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[74] choanoflagellates,[75] oomycetes,[76] brown algae,[77] yellow-green algae,[78] Excavata (due east.chiliad., euglenids).[79] Some of these have been constitute preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions (e.yard., Paleoleishmania, a kinetoplastid).

Others are relatively mutual in the fossil record,[eighty] as the diatoms,[81] golden algae,[82] haptophytes (coccoliths),[83] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[84] green algae,[85] red algae,[86] heliozoans, radiolarians,[87] foraminiferans,[88] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[89] Some are even used as paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.

More likely eukaryote fossils brainstorm to appear at about 1.eight billion years agone, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists.[ninety] Another possible representative of early on fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.

See also [edit]

  • Development of sexual reproduction
  • Marine protists
  • Protist locomotion
  • Protistology

Footnotes [edit]

  1. ^ a b The first eukaryotes were "neither plants, animals, nor fungi", hence as defined, the category protist would include the last eukaryotic common ancestor.
  2. ^ Monera somewhen became the ii domains Bacteria and Archaea.[5]
  3. ^ In the original 4-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as bacteria. Herbert Copeland proposed separate kingdoms, Mychota for prokaryotes and Protoctista for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland's distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was eventually disquisitional in Whittaker proposing a final five-kingdom system, fifty-fifty though he resisted it for over a decade.[8] [ix]

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Bibliography [edit]

General [edit]

  • Haeckel, E. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
  • Hausmann, M., N. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
  • Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, G. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
  • Margulis, L., Grand.Five. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, third ed. New York: West.H. Freeman, 1998.
  • Margulis, L., Fifty. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
  • Margulis, L., One thousand.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009.
  • Schaechter, Thousand. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology [edit]

  • Foissner, W.; D.L. Hawksworth. Protist Diverseness and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
  • Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Minor Everywhere? Cambridge Academy Press, Cambridge, 2011.
  • Levandowsky, G. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Prison cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
  • Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, part B (vol. i [ permanent expressionless link ] , Charophyta, vol. ii, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), part C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and role D [ permanent dead link ] (Importantly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Bedrock, Colorado: Geological Guild of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: Academy of Kansas Printing.

External links [edit]

  • Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
  • A coffee applet for exploring the new higher level classification of eukaryotes
  • Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Sea – video
  • Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Diversity of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Last modified: 11/18/thirteen.
  • Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biology, Hosei Academy.[1]. Updated: March 22, 2016.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist

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